Cause & Effect — TOEFL Academic Vocabulary
The core expressions for stating what causes what — the backbone of academic explanations in all four TOEFL sections. Five high-utility words with the full apparatus: pronunciation, both definitions, natural + academic examples, collocations, family, mistakes — then a 10-question set quiz.
cause /kɔz/ verb B1
Meaning: To make something happen.
Academic meaning: To be the direct reason that an event happens or a condition changes.
Natural example: Smoking can cause serious health problems.
Academic example: Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes ocean water to become more acidic.
Collocations: cause damage · cause problems · cause a rise in
Synonyms: produce, trigger, generate
Antonyms: prevent, result from
Word family: cause (n) · causal (adj) · causation (n)
⚠ Common mistake: Learners write 'cause that…' or 'cause to people problems' — the pattern is cause + object (+ to + verb).
Register: neutral academic · Usage: cause + object + to-infinitive (cause the ice to melt) or cause + noun (cause damage). Also a noun: the cause of…
result in /rɪˈzʌlt ɪn/ phrase B2
Meaning: To end with a particular result.
Academic meaning: To be followed by a particular outcome; used when an action or process ends in a stated effect.
Natural example: His carelessness resulted in a broken window.
Academic example: Repeated flooding resulted in the closure of the coastal road.
Collocations: result in failure · result in a loss · result in changes
Synonyms: lead to, give rise to, bring about
Antonyms: result from, stem from
Word family: result (n) · resulting (adj)
⚠ Common mistake: Learners mix up result in (before the EFFECT) and result from (after the CAUSE) — check which side of the arrow you are on.
Register: formal academic · Usage: result in + effect (noun/verb-ing). The cause is the sentence subject.
lead to /lid tu/ phrase B2
Meaning: To cause something to happen later, step by step.
Academic meaning: To develop into or make possible a later result, often through a chain of events.
Natural example: Hard work usually leads to success.
Academic example: Deforestation can lead to soil erosion and, eventually, desertification.
Collocations: lead to change · eventually lead to · lead to a decline
Synonyms: result in, cause, contribute to
Antonyms: prevent, stop
Word family: lead (v) · leading (adj)
⚠ Common mistake: Learners write 'lead people to somewhere' in causal sentences — for results the pattern is lead to + noun, with no object between.
Register: neutral academic · Usage: lead to + effect (noun/verb-ing). Often with can/may/eventually to show a chain rather than instant cause.
consequence /ˈkɑnsəkwəns/ noun B2
Meaning: Something that happens because of an earlier action.
Academic meaning: The outcome of an action or event, especially one that follows logically and matters for later decisions.
Natural example: He didn't study, and the consequence was a failing grade.
Academic example: One consequence of rising temperatures is the spread of tropical diseases into new regions.
Collocations: as a consequence · the consequence of · serious consequences
Synonyms: result, outcome, effect
Antonyms: cause, origin
Word family: consequently (adv) · consequent (adj)
⚠ Common mistake: Learners say 'consequence from' — the pattern is the consequence of + cause, or consequence for + the person affected.
Register: formal academic · Usage: Patterns: a consequence of + cause; as a consequence, …; consequences for + people/system.
due to /du tu/ phrase B1
Meaning: Because of.
Academic meaning: Introduces the reason for a situation, typically a negative or noteworthy one; slightly formal alternative to because of.
Natural example: The flight was canceled due to fog.
Academic example: The decline in frog populations is partly due to a fungal disease spreading through their habitats.
Collocations: due to the fact that · due to bad weather · partly due to
Synonyms: because of, owing to, as a result of
Antonyms: despite, in spite of
Word family: due (adj)
⚠ Common mistake: Traditionally due to follows a form of 'be' (The delay was due to fog); for action verbs, because of is safer (He left because of the rain).
Register: formal academic · Usage: due to + noun/verb-ing, normally after be (is/was due to). In modern academic writing it is also accepted more broadly.